Apple Lawsuit Puts Samsung Tablet Sales in Australia on Hold

Apple Inc. won an agreement from Samsung Electronics Co. that the South Korean company won’t sell the newest version of its tablet computer in Australia until a patent lawsuit in the country is resolved.

The Samsung Galaxy Tab 10.1 infringes 10 Apple patents, including the “look and feel,” and touchscreen technology of the iPad, Steven Burley, a lawyer for Apple, told Federal Court Justice Annabelle Bennett in Sydney yesterday. The Cupertino, California-based company sought an Australian injunction and also wants to stop Samsung from selling the tablet in other countries, Burley said without specifying where.

Samsung, based in Suwon, South Korea, agreed to stop advertising the Galaxy Tab 10.1 in Australia and not to sell the device until it wins court approval or the lawsuit is resolved, according to an accord reached by lawyers during a break in the hearing. Should Apple lose its patent infringement lawsuit, it agreed to pay Samsung damages, which weren’t specified.

The dispute between the companies began in April when Apple sued Samsung in the U.S., claiming the Galaxy products “slavishly” imitated the designs and technologies used for its iPad and iPhone. Samsung, which supplies memory chips for Apple, retaliated with lawsuits in South Korea, Japan, Germany and the U.S.

Imminent Launch

The Australian injunction is necessary because Samsung has had “announcements of an imminent launch of the Galaxy Tab 10.1 device ongoing since July 20,” Burley said before the agreement was announced.

Apple is basing yesterday’s claim on a U.S. version of the Galaxy tablet, which is different from the one that will be sold in Australia, Samsung’s lawyer Neil Murray said.

Samsung had no plans to sell the U.S. version of the Galaxy tablet in Australia, the company said in an e-mailed statement today.

The agreement to halt advertising and sale of the Galaxy Tab 10.1 doesn’t affect any other Samsung tablet or smart phone available in Australia, or other countries, the company said.

Samsung agreed to provide Apple three samples of the Australian version of the computer tablet at least seven days before it planned to start distributing it so the U.S. company could review it, according to the agreement submitted in court.

Bennett scheduled a hearing for Aug. 29 to review the status of the case and set a trial date if necessary

Related articles

• Apple Suit Puts Samsung Tablet Sales in Australia on Hold (businessweek.com)
• Samsung bows to Apple, temporarily halts tablet sales in Australia (9to5mac.com)
• Samsung agrees not to sell Galaxy Tab 10.1 in Australia until Apple lawsuit is resolved (9to5google.com)
• Samsung-Apple Wars: Galaxy blocked Down Under (go.theregister.com)
• Samsung Australia responds following block on Galaxy Tab (zdnet.com)
• Samsung halts sales of the Galaxy Tab in Australia due to Apple lawsuit (geek.com)
• Apple Halts Samsung Galaxy Tab 10.1 Sales in Australia (nytimes.com)
• Samsung Can't Sell the Galaxy Tab in Australia Because of Apple [Lawsuits] (gizmodo.com)
• Apple Lawsuit Stalls Sales of Galaxy Tab in Australia (nytimes.com)
• Samsung's Full Response On Australian Galaxy Tab 10.1 Battle With Apple (gizmodo.com.au)

Read More

So, what exactly is 4G?

Everyone has heard about it over the last year, especially in the last couple months as more and more commercials hammer the terminology into the modern, casual vernacular. It is impossible these days to not come across some sort of wireless Internet or cell phone service advertisement without the mention of 4G.  And although most people just smile and nod their head when hearing about the revolutionary new mobile broadband network, many simply have no idea what 4G is.  However, they are eager to learn.
 
Basically, that popular term that litters the subculture of the techno-savvy stands for fourth generation, as in the fourth generation of cell phone technology. Of course, the actual term is pretty broad, incorporating a slew of precise definitions including International Mobile Telecommunications Advanced (IMT Advanced) as well as specific specs as to what constitutes and separates it from other digital networks. But in order to avoid complications, fourth generation will do. In fact, all cellular technology has been classified under a specific "generation." Those retro, 80s-style phones that Gordon Gekko popularized in the hit movie "Wall Street" can be considered 1G, since they utilized an analog signal. Once 2G hit in the 1990s, analog transferred to digital and a decade later 3G came along, beginning to incorporate faster connection speeds as well as Internet capabilities.

What makes the fourth generation so unique, however, are the actual innovative features that make its predecessors seem archaic with regards to the modern, fast-paced technological world. With peak data rates ranging around 100Mbits per second and bandwidths within 40MHz, the network provides portable devices such as smart phones and laptops the ability to download a wide array of large files from the Internet. Most of the technology is HD compatible, so even high-res videos can be streamed with ease, something that 3G devices could not do. Plus, with regards to cell phone conversations, connections are more reliable and calls are crystal clear. Dropped calls are slowly becoming a thing of the past.

So, the next question for any interested consumer is the following: is investing in 4G devices a wise decision? Well, considering the facts that technology moves at such a fast pace, as of now it seems that the investment is sound. Talks are in place for the eventual development of 5G - heck, Web sites have already been started to prep for its future release - but the actual innovation seems to still be a few years down the road. The real reason to upgrade and invest in the new "generation" of devices is the simple fact that not keeping up with the modern world can seriously leave repercussions on an individual's work and social life. It sounds a bit drastic and ignorant to say, but with more and more industries slowly transitioning to the digital world and more and more people utilizing MySpace and Facebook on a day-to-day basis, the upgrade is now essential. Keeping up with modern with this high-speed, constantly connected world is no longer a choice; it is a necessity. Therefore, investing in the newest technology and possessing a bit of knowledge about its functionality is not only a great way to stay in the loop, so to speak, but also a manner of staying prepared for wherever the future leads.

Let 4g internet and education guide you through the constant changes in the technological world.  The knowledge of mobile broadband combined with clear wireless internet 4g devices guarantees to keep any consumer "in the loop" with regards to modern society.

Related articles

• Would you give up the Internet for life for one million dollars, one billion dollars? (textually.org)
• Video: Would you give up the Internet for life for .... (hotair.com)
• What is 3G Networking? (thinkup.waldenu.edu)
• What is 3G Networking? (thinkup.waldenu.edu)
• What is 3G Networking? (thinkup.waldenu.edu)
• Top 6 Cell Phone Myths (mycricket.com)
• 4G Not A Major Factor For Most When Upgrading To A New Device? (techburgh.com)
• How About C.H.A.N.G.E?? (indigenou.wordpress.com)
• Backhaul for the Mobile Broadband or Wireless Broadband Network (aviatnetworks.com)
• The 4G Network - What AT&T Can Offer You (brighthub.com)

Read More

Top 5 Reasons to Switch to 4G Wireless Internet

4G wireless technology has completely changed the world of internet access. Although this technology has only recently hit the mainstream, it's already making waves with consumers who are finding it easier than traditional internet access options. As more and more people are switching to laptops and netbooks, an increasing number of Americans are seeking portability with their internet access, and also their lives in general. 4G wireless internet technology rises to meet this societal change, and provides high speed access with many additional benefits compared to other options. Some of the primary reasons that people switch to mobile broadband technology are reviewed below.

1. Wireless internet allows you to travel.
This reason alone is a huge decision factor for those interested in purchasing a wireless internet package. With 4G mobile broadband, location becomes largely irrelevant in internet access. You could be driving down the road, sitting in a park, or at your desk and your access and speeds would likely be very similar. With an expansive 4G network already in place, it's very easy to keep connected anywhere you are. Mobile wimax technology is ideal for frequent travelers.

2. Getting rid of the utility company and associated contracts.
Many people switching to wireless internet cite dissatisfaction with their utility company as a primary motivation for switching. This makes a lot of sense - utility companies are often overpriced, suffer from poor customer service, and are generally cumbersome with any other types of technical service issues. Many utility companies require a contract and commitment for service, something that 4G wireless customers can largely avoid.

3. No more connection issues or hard-wired modems.
Getting rid of old modem technology is a big plus for many customers. For DSL users, "line noise" and slow speeds are common. With cable, outages and problems with cable modems are frequent cause for concern. With a mobile air card, there's no need for an in-home modem, and no need for an additional wireless router.

4. It's Fast!
4G wireless broadband is fast - there's just no question about it. The speed offered by 4G wireless technology is frequently in the 3-6 megabit per second range. This makes it comparable to DSL service, and in the same range as many basic cable internet packages. The reliability is outstanding, particularly in urban areas. Compared with other wireless internet technologies, it's way ahead of its time.

5. Dedicated technical support and ease of use/installation.
Unlike the local telephone company that has a host of issues to deal with, a 4G mobile wimax provider has only one thing on their mind: getting you connected. Having dedicated and informed technical support is a huge reason to go with 4G wireless. In addition, the simple, USB modem is incredibly easy to install and use. It requires few adjustments to your computer, and can get you up and running quick.

For incredibly fast internet service, think about a 4G wireless provider. The people at
clear wireless internet are leading the way in new wimax technology, making them an ideal and economical choice for individuals.

Related articles

• Your First Tip of the New Year from Organic SEO Consultant: Canonicalization? (organicseoconsultant.com)
• Connect to wireless but no internet (edugeek.net)
• Sierra Nevada Memorial Hospital Now Offers Free Wireless Internet Connection (yubanet.com)
• D-Link 802.11n Wireless Internet Surveillance Camera for $60 + free shipping (9to5toys.com)
• Re: Your phone bill ...Rashad Robinson, ColorOfChange.org (ynative77.wordpress.com)

Read More

4G Wireless-The Magic Wand

Image via Wikipedia
"Some men and women see things as they are and say why; I dream things that never were and say why not?" -said George Bernard Shaw. A few years from now the whole world would be wirelessly wired with a number of satellites. Instead of re-tracing the itinerary of developed countries, developing countries would leapfrog to the most modern technology and go wireless. In case poor in the world will also get the power of cheap wireless technologies including toll-free numbers to talk to their Governments and command tools of economic development like bank loans, roads, schools and hospitals. Wireless freedom would raise millions of entrepreneurs, The problems faced by micro-entrepreneurs of the vulnerability to access the bigger public market and its market information would be surmount, proficient channels to get to worldwide consumers will open. Farmers and fishermen can discover markets and put forth wherever they can get the best value for their produce. This will spawn a considerable opportunity for the working poor to rise from poverty.
Image via Wikipedia
Going wireless in the rural segment will be that Communication will spruce down rural-to-urban migration by providing for better employment and livelihood in rural areas through small business and micro enterprise improvement. Micro-entrepreneurs can twirl their mobiles into income generating devices, by effortlessly listing their product information to large online markets without a need of computers, the technological and social-economic gaps created by the "digital divide will peter out.

It would enable instantaneous access to assistance during civil emergencies and natural disasters thereby saving thousands of lives. Wireless Communication will perk up access to health extension services in the most remote corners of the World. Telemedicine services, including remote diagnosis and treatment advice and increasing access to up-to-date market and price information would become a norm. Wireless Communication will to a great extent reduce the opportunity cost of transactions for farmers and rural-based traders, it will aid education services including distance learning and would improve Accountability, transparency, and efficiency of a range of government operations through information systems developed in rural areas helping millions to advance in life. Hope is, by so doing, it will elevate the standard of living throughout the World.
Image via Wikipedia
4G Wireless 4th Generation Wireless Standard is getting evolved. Once implemented it would change the way we live our lives. 4G Wireless mobiles would be petite enough to fit in a palm and light in mass like a pen and the gadget would apart from being a mobile phone with data transfer speeds of more than 100Mps, deliver a complete surround-sound home theater experience, download a complete high-definition movie, have a micro-projector that could show the movie on any flat surface, a digital movie can be seen on it with effects delivering apparently a 3D experience.

Each and every content can be downloaded wirelessly purge need to Buy Newspapers and Magazines. The device can be used for making purchases (charges go to the mobile instead of the credit card); and it could be used for many other activities where cash is required. A sales clerk could ask, whether to charge the card or the mobile. The mobile would become our ears and eyes and would be so "intelligent" and "prescient" that it would not only alert us to the next big sale or the best price for the number one car model, but also caution us how stale the fish is or warn us about the gunman skulk in the darkness or the landslide ahead.

These mobiles can be used for daily life activities, such as to control various home devices like AC's, Rice Cookers, Refrigerators etc as well as will be used for Work with customized features depending on the users requirements, Nursing and Health care will change dramatically, Doctors will be able to remotely perform routine checks of patients from the wearable mobiles in real time or react immediately in case of an emergency. A doctor can give first aid directives by seeing the patient on screen.

Medical Data can be transmitted instantaneously to an ambulance or a hospital. A person can be sited exactly from the mobile he is carrying. These mobiles can also be used in catastrophe management by enabling transmission of real time data of disaster-stricken areas, giving Humans freedom from Time, Space and User Feature. The cost of this mobile and its communications abilities will be so low that the world's poorest people will rush to clinch the technology because of its apparent benefits.

4G Wireless Research. Research on 4G Wireless has been going on for the last few years. These networks promise a much higher overall data throughput and much more diverse services than what current second and third (2G-3G) networks can do . All-IP wireless has emerged as the most favored platform for 4G wireless networks. The blueprint of future wireless networking architecture has to take into account the fact that foremost load in 4G wireless networks will be high-speed, content-rich, burst-type traffic, which has previously posed a great challenge to all existing wireless networking Technologies used in existing networks. Many research activities are researching the design of suitable architectures for 4G wireless networks, which are proficient, adaptive, flexible and scalable, that work harmonically with different network technologies (including legacy 2G, 2.5G and 3G networks) and allow heterogeneous networking applications. Research is on to look into how to realize smooth migration and seamless interoperability between the legacy networks and future 4G wireless networks.

4G Architecture. It has been recommended that the architecture of 4G wireless networks should efficiently address all the constraints and tribulations existing in the current wireless networking technologies. The research on the next generation wireless networking involves many cutting edge research topics, such as cross-layer joint optimization design, quality of service assurance, dynamic network recourse allocation, ad hoc/mesh network routing algorithms, heterogeneous networking, cooperative Network detection, vertical/horizontal network services integration,. state-of-the-art research is being carried on subjects like: 4G network planning * Network resource allocation and assignment * Fault tolerance and service availability * 4G Killer Applications * 4G networking standardization.

The 4G Wireless Design Forum The 4G Design Forum has tried to implement various features deemed necessary for 4G Systems as raised by various potential users during the course of deliberations. A consensus has been reached by 4G forum to address (1)Education, Art and Science-*Many consumers appreciated the convenience of being able to attain a wide range of information devoid of any constraints of location. Numerous had an impression that knowledge and information equivalent to those provided by school classes can be attained through mobile communications. (2)Entertainment *Large number of consumers wanted to be able to watch movies anywhere using their spare time. Its "omnipresent nature" (able to enjoy service anytime, anywhere) and "private nature" (realizing a wide range of entertainment services on individual terminals) were well accepted. (3)Business -*Consumers evaluated the elimination of the need to cart around bulky paper information. (4)Visual Communications-*Many recognized the necessity of the service--especially to show videos of themselves to relatives living far away in real time. (5)Work-*Many cherished the convenience of being able to realize a mobile phone, commuter pass, wallet, and keys, which are carried separately today, in a single terminal (6)Mobile EC -*Many acknowledged high valuation for the reason that of the convenience of being able to make purchases from mobile terminals and also owing to the prospects of crafting a new businesses. It was seen so striking that some voiced apprehension of shopping too much from a mobile handset. (7)Daily Life -*Regarded as a very convenient usage image. Many wanted this to be realized with sufficient level of security through retinal authentication, etc. (8)Nursing and Health Care-*Many shared a sagacity of relief for being able to corroborate the health conditions of elderly relatives from a remote place. (9)Emergency Medical Treatment-*Many felt it necessary to be able to promptly grasp the state of the site and the condition of injured person in case of an emergency, or access medical record information. (10)Use in Disasters- Many considered it necessary to be able to make contacts to confirm the safety of others and obtain information regarding evacuation routes in the event of a disaster.

4G Wireless Platforms. The reference model of a 4G Wireless platform consists of ? The Mobile terminal, ? 4G mobile communications system infrastructure, and ? Service platform.

The Mobile terminal. It performs multi-link communications with the 4G system and other system infrastructures. When a system infrastructure is not available within reach of communications, multi-hop communications is performed. The mobile terminal is equipped with various interfaces, for example, for electronic-paper browsing among others, as well as assistance functions including voice/image/character recognition. In addition, its security, authentication, and authorization functions are reinforced with biometric sensors and copyright IDs. With the mobile terminal reconfigurability feature, users are able to download and execute heterogeneous programs or customize their handsets. The large number of functional requirements on the mobile terminals and connected devices is a distinctive characteristic of future mobile terminals.

4G-system infrastructure The 4G-system infrastructure realizes high-speed, large-volume transmission and high-quality multimedia transmission. The system also has a QoS notification function between layers to coordinate QoS between layers. The model domains on the vision for future systems are: Service & Application, Service Support Platform on Packet based Core Network, New Radio Access, Moving network support capability, New mobile access capability, New nomadic wireless access (NWA) capability and Supports interconnection between New radio access, 2G/3G cellular systems, WLAN, Digital broadcasting, Dedicated Short Range Communications (DSRC), etc. and can be able to configure ad hoc networks via terminals

The Service Platform It consists of numerous servers and agents. Provides navigation function based on position information systems, controls user authority and manages/collates personal information through biometric authentication. The service platform is connected with distributed database systems or high-quality content servers, to control access authority using authentication servers, and deliver video or music content catered to users' preference or terminal capability from content servers using an agent. It is also connected with social/disaster prevention systems. In the event of a disaster, a extremely steadfast network is configured to make available multicast communications. Automatic broadcast of emergency condition linked with biometric sensors of terminals will also be realized.

Various other studies are also be facilitated, including the improvements of the reference models drafted for the service platform and system infrastructure, in a bid to contribute to the development of 4G mobile systems and fulfill the quest of being footloose and mobile in to a next age of Communication Systems.

Conclusion. World Over the research on 4G (Fourth Generation) Mobile Communications is in progress, the technology is going to be Implemented World Wide in 2010.The technology is still in evolution but Countries have already started committing themselves to its implementation. India has said that it would leapfrog from 2G to 4G bypassing the 3G Technology. China, Korea and Japan are jointly developing 4G Phones; China will implement 4G technologies for the Beijing Olympic games in 2008. The World is looking up to 4G for transformation of the way people live day-to-day. About a billion SMS sent around the world would create a multi-million dollar industry in itself. These are the dreams, which can be implemented with ease.4G Wireless will Integrate civilizations as never before. It will transform lives of all human beings into a more Enriched and Cultured life, more flexible and diversified life, more Comfortable and safer life, more Personal and Convenient Life.

Related articles

• Backhaul for the Mobile Broadband or Wireless Broadband Network (aviatnetworks.com)
• What is 3G Networking? (thinkup.waldenu.edu)
• What is 3G Networking? (thinkup.waldenu.edu)
• What is 3G Networking? (thinkup.waldenu.edu)
• New legislation wants to better define 4G (digitaltrends.com)

Read More

The Next Generation Disposable Email Service, Better Than Mailinator

The internet service TittBit was formed on 27th July 2010 and offeres free disposable email addresses since its formation to protect against spam. The service is free, and is supported by donations and advertisements on the website.



== Functionality ==

If anyone requires an email address, then he may simply specify a new TittBit address by just opening the website into web browser. The address specifies a new random email address generated automatically in the format (random alphabets and numbers)@tittbit.in. Just after opening the website, new email are keep checked automatically and continuously and are displayed on the same page. They merely need to specify new addresses which are created and expire automatically.

After 4 hrs. when an address is expired, the service does not "bounce" email addressed to it, but rather ignores the email, so that the sender has no indication that the transmission was not successful.

The service supports time expiring addresses, and allows users to create unlimited number of temporary email addresses. All email address generated are publicly available and can be accessed by anyone if he/she knows the address used by a user, however, they automatically get expired after 4 hrs.


== Structure of addresses ==
TittBit addresses are generally specified as follows:

    * random 10 digits alphabets and numbers(@)tittbit.in

The Word can be any character string made of numbers and letters. A custom email address can also be used by the user if he want so for example in that case the email address would be

    * username(@)tittbit.in
Also it exercises the ptactice of changing and rotating domains so that the ban of tittbit may be preevented.
== Use ==
Typical applications for such addresses are forums, software registrations, newsletters and the like. Issues may arise in the situations where TittBit ignores email at expiration of the address without comment. Also, the service should not be used for important correspondence. The lack of errors sent back to senders for undelivered messages is a significant departure from what is normally expected of the email infrastructure.

Since the service is very new, TittBit addresses are accepted almost by all Internet services, normally those which finance themselves by the sales of email addresses may find it and reject but that will take some time. In addition numerous Internet forums with registration obligations may prevent the use of TittBit addresses, in order to prevent the registration of fake accounts. As with other disposable email services, tittbit provides alternative domains for use by its users, some published, and others unpublished, automatically checking of emails through dynamic ajax user interface.

Read More

Science

Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning "knowledge") is an enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the natural world. According to Aristotle, science is also the resulting body of reliable knowledge that can be logically and convincingly explained (see "History and etymology" section below).

Since classical antiquity science as a type of knowledge was closely linked to philosophy, the way of life dedicated to discovering such knowledge. And into early modern times the two words were sometimes used interchangeably in the English language. By the 17th century, "natural philosophy" (which is today called "natural science") could be considered separately from "philosophy" in general. But "science" continued to also be used in a broad sense denoting reliable knowledge about a topic, in the same way it is still used in modern terms such as library science, political science, and computer science.

The more narrow sense of "science" which is common today, developed as a part of science became a distinct enterprise of defining "laws of nature", based on early examples such as Kepler's laws, Galileo's laws, and Newton's laws of motion. In this period it became more common to refer to natural philosophy as "natural science". Over the course of the 19th century, the word "science" became increasingly strongly associated with the disciplined study of the natural world, for example physics and chemistry. Many of the other areas of scientific study outside the natural sciences have sometimes been classified as social sciences.

Basic classifications

Scientific fields are commonly divided into two major groups: natural sciences, which study natural phenomena (including biological life), and social sciences, which study human behavior and societies. These groupings are empirical sciences, which means the knowledge must be based on observable phenomena and capable of being tested for its validity by other researchers working under the same conditions. There are also related disciplines that are grouped into interdisciplinary and applied sciences, such as engineering and health science. Within these categories are specialized scientific fields that can include elements of other scientific disciplines but often possess their own terminology and body of expertise.

Mathematics, which is classified as a formal science, has both similarities and differences with the natural and social sciences. It is similar to empirical sciences in that it involves an objective, careful and systematic study of an area of knowledge; it is different because of its method of verifying its knowledge, using a priori rather than empirical methods. Formal science, which also includes statistics and logic, is vital to the empirical sciences. Major advances in formal science have often led to major advances in the empirical sciences. The formal sciences are essential in the formation of hypotheses, theories, and laws, both in discovering and describing how things work (natural sciences) and how people think and act (social sciences).

History and etymology

While descriptions of disciplined empirical investigations of the natural world exist from times at least as early as classical antiquity (for example, by Aristotle and Pliny the Elder), and scientific methods have been employed since the Middle Ages (for example, by Alhazen and Roger Bacon), the dawn of modern science is generally traced back to the early modern period during what is known as the Scientific Revolution of the 16th and 17th centuries. This period was marked by a new way of studying the natural world, by methodical experimentation aimed at defining "laws of nature" while avoiding concerns with metaphysical concerns such as Aristotle's theory of causation.

This modern science developed from an older and broader enterprise. The word "science" is from Old French, and in turn from Latin scientia which was one of several words for "knowledge" in that language. In philosophical contexts, scientia and "science" were used to translate the Greek word epistemē, which had acquired a specific definition in Greek philosophy, especially Aristotle, as a type of reliable knowledge which is built up logically from strong premises, and can be communicated and taught. Aristotle's influential emphasis was upon the "theoretical" step of deducing universal rules from raw data, and did not treat the gathering of experience and raw data as part of science itself.

From the Middle Ages to the Enlightenment, science or scientia continued to be used in this broad sense, which was still common until the twentieth century."Science" therefore had the same sort of very broad meaning that philosophy had at that time. In other Latin influenced languages, including French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian, the word corresponding to science also carried this meaning.

Prior to the 18th century, the preferred term for the study of nature among English speakers was "natural philosophy", while other philosophical disciplines (e.g., logic, metaphysics, epistemology, ethics and aesthetics) were typically referred to as "moral philosophy". (Today, "moral philosophy" is more-or-less synonymous with "ethics".) Science only became more strongly associated with natural philosophy than other sciences gradually with the strong promotion of the importance of experimental scientific method, by people such as Francis Bacon. With Bacon, begins a more widespread and open criticism of Aristotle's influence which had emphasized theorizing and did not treat raw data collection as part of science itself. An opposed position became common: that what is critical to science at its best is methodical collecting of clear and useful raw data, something which is easier to do in some fields than others.

The word "science" in English was still however used in the 17th century to refer to the Aristotelian concept of knowledge which was secure enough to be used as a prescription for exactly how to accomplish a specific task. With respect to the transitional usage of the term "natural philosophy" in this period, the philosopher John Locke wrote disparagingly in 1690 that "natural philosophy is not capable of being made a science".

Locke's assertion notwithstanding, by the early 19th century natural philosophy had begun to separate from philosophy, though it often retained a very broad meaning. In many cases, science continued to stand for reliable knowledge about any topic, in the same way it is still used today in the broad sense (see the introduction to this article) in modern terms such as library science, political science, and computer science. In the more narrow sense of science, as natural philosophy became linked to an expanding set of well-defined laws (beginning with Galileo's laws, Kepler's laws, and Newton's laws for motion), it became more popular to refer to natural philosophy as natural science. Over the course of the 19th century, moreover, there was an increased tendency to associate science with study of the natural world (that is, the non-human world). This move sometimes left the study of human thought and society (what would come to be called social science) in a linguistic limbo by the end of the century and into the next.

Through the 19th century, many English speakers were increasingly differentiating science (i.e., the natural sciences) from all other forms of knowledge in a variety of ways. The now-familiar expression “scientific method,” which refers to the prescriptive part of how to make discoveries in natural philosophy, was almost unused until then, but became widespread after the 1870s, though there was rarely total agreement about just what it entailed. The word "scientist," meant to refer to a systematically working natural philosopher, (as opposed to an intuitive or empirically minded one) was coined in 1833 by William Whewell.Discussion of scientists as a special group of people who did science, even if their attributes were up for debate, grew in the last half of the 19th century. Whatever people actually meant by these terms at first, they ultimately depicted science, in the narrow sense of the habitual use of the scientific method and the knowledge derived from it, as something deeply distinguished from all other realms of human endeavor.

By the 20th century, the modern notion of science as a special kind of knowledge about the world, practiced by a distinct group and pursued through a unique method, was essentially in place. It was used to give legitimacy to a variety of fields through such titles as "scientific" medicine, engineering, advertising, or motherhood. Over the 20th century, links between science and technology also grew increasingly strong. As Martin Rees explains, progress in scientific understanding and technology have been synergistic and vital to one another.

Richard Feynman described science in the following way for his students: "The principle of science, the definition, almost, is the following: The test of all knowledge is experiment. Experiment is the sole judge of scientific 'truth'. But what is the source of knowledge? Where do the laws that are to be tested come from? Experiment, itself, helps to produce these laws, in the sense that it gives us hints. But also needed is imagination to create from these hints the great generalizations — to guess at the wonderful, simple, but very strange patterns beneath them all, and then to experiment to check again whether we have made the right guess." Feynman also observed, "...there is an expanding frontier of ignorance...things must be learned only to be unlearned again or, more likely, to be corrected.

Scientific method

A scientific method seeks to explain the events of nature in a reproducible way, and to use these findings to make useful predictions. This is done partly through observation of natural phenomena, but also through experimentation that tries to simulate natural events under controlled conditions. Taken in its entirety, a scientific method allows for highly creative problem solving whilst minimizing any effects of subjective bias on the part of its users (namely the confirmation bias).

Basic and applied research

Although some scientific research is applied research into specific problems, a great deal of our understanding comes from the curiosity-driven undertaking of basic research. This leads to options for technological advance that were not planned or sometimes even imaginable. This point was made by Michael Faraday when, allegedly in response to the question "what is the use of basic research?" he responded "Sir, what is the use of a new-born child?". For example, research into the effects of red light on the human eye's rod cells did not seem to have any practical purpose; eventually, the discovery that our night vision is not troubled by red light would lead militaries to adopt red light in the cockpits of all jet fighters. In a nutshell: Basic research is the search for knowledge. Applied research is the search for solutions.

Experimentation and hypothesizing

Based on observations of a phenomenon,scientists may generate a model. This is an attempt to describe or depict the phenomenon in terms of a logical physical or mathematical representation. As empirical evidence is gathered, scientists can suggest a hypothesis to explain the phenomenon. Hypotheses may be formulated using principles such as parsimony (traditionally known as "Occam's Razor") and are generally expected to seek consilience - fitting well with other accepted facts related to the phenomena. This new explanation is used to make falsifiable predictions that are testable by experiment or observation. When a hypothesis proves unsatisfactory, it is either modified or discarded. Experimentation is especially important in science to help establish a causational relationships (to avoid the correlation fallacy). Operationalization also plays an important role in coordinating research in/across different fields.

Once a hypothesis has survived testing, it may become adopted into the framework of a scientific theory. This is a logically reasoned, self-consistent model or framework for describing the behavior of certain natural phenomena. A theory typically describes the behavior of much broader sets of phenomena than a hypothesis; commonly, a large number of hypotheses can be logically bound together by a single theory. Thus a theory is a hypothesis explaining various other hypotheses. In that vein, theories are formulated according to most of the same scientific principles as hypotheses.

While performing experiments, scientists may have a preference for one outcome over another, and so it is important to ensure that science as a whole can eliminate this bias. This can be achieved by careful experimental design, transparency, and a thorough peer review process of the experimental results as well as any conclusions.After the results of an experiment are announced or published, it is normal practice for independent researchers to double-check how the research was performed, and to follow up by performing similar experiments to determine how dependable the results might be.

Philosophy of science

The philosophy of science seeks to understand the nature and justification of scientific knowledge. It has proven difficult to provide a definitive account of scientific method that can decisively serve to distinguish science from non-science. Thus there are legitimate arguments about exactly where the borders are, which is known as the problem of demarcation. There is nonetheless a set of core precepts that have broad consensus among published philosophers of science and within the scientific community at large. For example, it is universally agreed that scientific hypotheses and theories must be capable of being independently tested and verified by other scientists in order to become accepted by the scientific community.

There are different schools of thought in the philosophy of scientific method. Methodological naturalism maintains that scientific investigation must adhere to empirical study and independent verification as a process for properly developing and evaluating natural explanations for observable phenomena. Methodological naturalism, therefore, rejects supernatural explanations, arguments from authority and biased observational studies. Critical rationalism instead holds that unbiased observation is not possible and a demarcation between natural and supernatural explanations is arbitrary; it instead proposes falsifiability as the landmark of empirical theories and falsification as the universal empirical method. Critical rationalism argues for the ability of science to increase the scope of testable knowledge, but at the same time against its authority, by emphasizing its inherent fallibility. It proposes that science should be content with the rational elimination of errors in its theories, not in seeking for their verification (such as claiming certain or probable proof or disproof; both the proposal and falsification of a theory are only of methodological, conjectural, and tentative character in critical rationalism). Instrumentalism rejects the concept of truth and emphasizes merely the utility of theories as instruments for explaining and predicting phenomena.

Biologist Stephen J. Gould maintained that certain philosophical propositions—i.e., 1) uniformity of law and 2) uniformity of processes across time and space—must first be assumed before you can proceed as a scientist doing science. Gould summarized this view as follows: "You cannot go to a rocky outcrop and observe either the constancy of nature's laws nor the working of unknown processes. It works the other way around." You first assume these propositions and "then you go to the outcrop of rock."

Media perspectives

The mass media face a number of pressures that can prevent them from accurately depicting competing scientific claims in terms of their credibility within the scientific community as a whole. Determining how much weight to give different sides in a scientific debate requires considerable expertise regarding the matter. Few journalists have real scientific knowledge, and even beat reporters who know a great deal about certain scientific issues may know little about other ones they are suddenly asked to cover.

Read More